Some individuals feel that by understanding the needs, emotions, and behaviors of others, those in authority can use the information in harmful ways that violate human rights or in ways to manipulate, fool or persuade individuals to do things they would not otherwise do. However, this is likely an underestimate, and it is impossible to accurately quantify the number of animals used in or for experimentation. It is now widely acknowledged by scientists and ethicists that animals can experience pain and distress [25]–[29]. Varying forms of depression have been repeatedly reported in animals, including nonhuman primates, dogs, pigs, cats, birds and rodents, among others [32]–[34]. Yes 2. This differs significantly from animal research guidelines, where the importance of the scientific question being researched commonly takes precedence over the interests of individual animals. Funding: The authors are grateful to the National Science Foundation (grant SES-0957163) and the Arcus Foundation (grant 0902-34) for the financial support for the corresponding conference, Animals, Research, and Alternatives: Measuring Progress 50 Years Later. Finally, several contributors presented the latest scientific advances in developing alternatives to the use of animals in pharmaceutical research and development and regulatory toxicity testing. Affiliations While a sea change is underway in regulatory toxicology, there has been much less dialogue surrounding the replacement of animals in research, despite the fact that far more animals are used in basic and applied research than in regulatory toxicology. Which of the following is defined as the branch of psychology that is concerned with establishing the principles of right and wrong behavior? It is important for researchers and reviewers to assess differences in the clinical presentation and manifestation of diseases among species, as well as anatomical, physiological, and genetic differences that could impact the transferability of findings. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research and Training” which stress compliance with the U.S. While it is important to acknowledge limitations to non-animal methods remain, recent developments demonstrate that these limitations should be viewed as rousing challenges rather than insurmountable obstacles. Competing interests: HRF and NB are employed by Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, which is a non-governmental organization which promotes higher ethical standards in research and alternatives to the use of animals in research, education, and training. Students learn about major psychological models and theories, and the methods used to conduct scientific investigations in the discipline of psychology. Play behavior, an indicator of pleasure, is widespread in mammals, and has also been described in birds [45], [46]. No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024059, http://www.bmj.com/content/early/2005/12/31/bmj.39048.407928.BE.full.pdfhtml, http://clinicaltrials.ploshubs.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pctr.0010036, http://www.bmj.com/content/328/7438/514.extract, http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/nuremberg.html, http://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/helsinki.pdf, http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1872363/, http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/phspol.htm#PublicHealthServicePolicyonHumaneCareandUseofLaboratory, http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/phspol.htm, http://cabig.cancer.gov/action/collaborations/howstudy/. These reviews have raised questions about whether human diseases inflicted upon animals sufficiently mimic the disease processes and treatment responses seen in humans. The Introduction discusses the intent and organizational considerations of the Ethics Code. In the area of vaccine testing and development, a surrogate in-vitro human immune system has been developed to help predict an individual's immune response to a particular drug or vaccine [53], [54]. Depending on the study, it is sometimes necessary for psychologists to be deceptive. Analysis and Discussion Ethical Considerations and Advances in the Understanding of Animal Cognition. Ethics in Research and Publication Grant Heller, Ph.D. 2. While strides have been made in the protection of both human and animal research subjects, the nature of these protections is markedly different. Ethical communication with clients dictates that psychologists will keep their conversations confidential unless required by law t/f? Yes The British Parliament passed the first set of protections for animals in 1876, with the Cruelty to Animals Act [19]. The five general principles from the APA are meant to __________. Although pain and suffering are subjective experiences, studies from multiple disciplines provide objective evidence of animals' abilities to experience pain. Why do some feel that it is not okay to use psychological research as a way to control behavior? In the Psychology ATAR course students will be introduced to psychological knowledge which supports an understanding of the way individuals function in groups. Animal Welfare Act excludes birds, rats and mice, the U.S. guidelines overseeing research conducted with federal funding includes protections for all vertebrates [22], [23]. The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. here. The NRC vision calls for a shift away from animal use in chemical testing toward computational models and high-throughput and high-content in vitro methods. Efforts to objectively evaluate the value of animal research for understanding and treating human disease are particularly relevant in the modern era, considering the availability of increasingly sophisticated technologies to address research questions [9]. Wrote the paper: HRF NB. (a) Psychologists’ moral, ethical and legal standards of behavior are a personal matter to the same degree as they are for other citizens, except as these may compromise the fulfillment of their professional responsibilities or reduce the trust in psychology or psychologists held by the general public. For example, fear operates in a less organized subcortical neural circuit than pain, and it has been described in a wide variety of species [31]. t/f? The psychologist is considered an expert in his field. The purpose of this course is to introduce Psychology majors and prospective majors to basic principles of research and practice in scientific psychology. When a psychologist is making a determination regarding whether or not a study is ethical, one should first consider __________ versus the demand or desire for increased knowledge in a particular field of study. One example of how psychological research can be used to control harmful behavior would be __________. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click AIDS and HIV Infection Update: New Research, Ethical Responsibilities, Evolving Legal Frameworks, and Published Resources [Innovations in Clinical Practice] Sexual Behavior Between Clinical Supervisors and Trainees: Implications for Professional Standards [Professional Psychology] Articles in the accompanying Collection only briefly touch on the many scientific and ethical issues surrounding the use of animals in testing and research. PSYCH 105 Psychology as a Science and Profession (3)(BA) This course meets the Bachelor of Arts degree requirements. Researchers and oversight boards have to evaluate the relevance of the research question and whether the tools of modern molecular and cell biology, genetics, biochemistry, and computational biology can be used in lieu of animals. Speakers also explored the dimensions of harm associated with animal research, touching on the ethical implications regarding the use of animals in research. In the case of vaccines, this system can be used at every stage, including in vitro disease models, antigen selection and adjuvant effects, safety testing, clinical trials, manufacturing, and potency assays. Strengthen your addiction knowledge base on your budget. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. Ethics is described as the principles of right and wrong behavior. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Despite the attention brought to this issue by Russell and Burch and since, the number of animals used in research and testing has continued to increase, raising serious ethical and scientific issues. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. It does not show respect for the subjects. This collection aims to spur further steps forward toward a more coherent ethical framework for scientific advancement. Similarly, any approach that emphasizes evidence-based prevention would provide benefits to both animals and humans. It is clear that there have been many scientific and ethical advances since the first publication of Russell and Burch's book. The Association for Applied Sport Psychology’s (AASP) Ethical Principles and Standards (hereinafter referred to as the Ethics Code) is presented here and consists of this Introduction, a Preamble, six general Principles, and 26 Standards. Full reporting of all animal use is not required or made public in most countries. Scientists are cautioned not to cause animals’ pain or distress, and serious reason must be given for conducting a research. t/f? Anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, have been described in animals including chimpanzees and elephants [35], [36], [37]. Conceived and designed the experiments: HRF NB. The “3 Rs” serve as the cornerstone for current animal research guidelines, but questions remain about the adequacy of existing guidelines and whether researchers, review boards, and funders have fully and adequately implemented the “3 Rs”. William Russell and Rex Burch published this seminal book in response to marked growth in medical and veterinary research and the concomitant increase in the numbers of animals used. Despite the attention brought to this issue by Russell and Burch, the number of animals used in research and testing has continued to increase. The American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (hereinafter referred to as the Ethics Code) consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five General Principles (A-E) and specific Ethical Standards.The Introduction discusses the intent, organization, procedural considerations, and scope of application of the Ethics Code. Recent estimates suggest that at least 100 million animals are used each year worldwide [2]. The majority of animal use in psychology is in research, and this is covered by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. No, Is the Subject Area "Drug research and development" applicable to this article? More complex markers of psychological distress have also been described in animals. A code of ethics for psychologists helps to do all of the following except __________. Ethics. Subsequently published articles address the implementation of this vision for improving the current system of chemical testing and assessment [50], [51]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024059, Editor: Catriona J. MacCallum, Public Library of Science, United Kingdom. Proponents of animal rights tend to regard animal experimentation as unethical because animals cannot consent to research. Russell and Burch's text emphasized reduction, refinement, and replacement of animal use, principles which have since been referred to as the “3 Rs”. The Master of Arts in Psychology and Addiction Studies is a degree designed to prepare you to advance in the field of addiction studies.This program is structured around courses that address the primary theories of addiction as well as addiction-specific topics related to the treatment and prevention of substance abuse. Animals also share similarities with humans in genetic, developmental, and environmental risk factors for psychopathology [25], [26]. Animal welfare: 1. These findings also challenge our assumptions about species similarities and differences and their relevance in solving ethical dilemmas regarding the use of animals in research. Start studying Ethical research (100%) Psychology. Get tips for negotiating ethical dilemmas in everyday life. Because researchers often use very specialized assays and systems to address their hypotheses, replacement of animals in this area is a more individualized endeavour. Yes Several papers have examined the concordance between animal and human data, demonstrating that findings in animals were not reliably replicated in human clinical research [5]–[13]. Ethical guidelines for animals, such as Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals (APA, 1996), have been established; thus, nowadays ethical guidelines on animal research are implemented and strongly supported by the law. Following the edicts and principles of psychology requires a highly developed moral sense. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, … Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". Yes e24059. This study, which began in 2002, could not have been accomplished with animal research [55]. Currently, the majority of guidelines operate on the presumption that animal research should proceed based on broad, perceived benefits to humans. Nevertheless, based on available information, it is clear that the number of animals used in research has not significantly declined over the past several decades. Animal Welfare Act excludes purpose-bred birds, rats, or mice, which comprise more than 90% of animals used in research [20]. If researchers could better understand the factors that increase the risk for breast cancer, as well as methods for effective prevention, fewer women would require treatment for breast cancer. Animal rights: the view that (non-human) animals have moral or legal rights. Today, these guidelines provide a platform for the protection of human research subjects, including the principles of respect, beneficence, and justice, as well as special protections for vulnerable populations. Copyright: © 2011 Ferdowsian, Beck. Studies published in the last few decades have dramatically increased our understanding of animal sentience, suggesting that animals' potential for experiencing harm is greater than has been appreciated and that current protections need to be reconsidered. Some believe that deception is a necessary tool for psychological research because deception __________. In the UK the Home Office is responsible for legislation in the field of animal welfare. Ethics is a discussion of how people __________ behave. Overview of history and methods of psychology as a science and profession; applications and ethical issues in psychology. Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, D.C., United States of America, Affiliation The use of animals in research is inherently more difficult to approach systematically because research questions are much more diverse and less proscribed than in regulatory toxicology [52]. The Dr. Susan Love Research Foundation, which focuses on eradicating breast cancer, has challenged research scientists to move from animal research to breast cancer prevention research involving women. The group responsible for punishing ethical violations among psychologists is the __________. Approximately ninety years later, the U.S. adopted regulations for animals used in research, with the passage of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act of 1966 [20]. The health and well-being of animals. The value of animal use for predicting human outcomes has also been questioned in the regulatory toxicology field, which relies on a codified set of highly standardized animal experiments for assessing various types of toxicity. Psychologists are supposed to make the most ethical decision they can in any circumstance. In the last decade, concerns have mounted about how relevant animal experiments are to human health outcomes. In addition, serious questions have been raised about the effectiveness of animal testing and research in predicting anticipated outcomes [5]–[13]. This two-day symposium aimed to advance the study of the ethical and scientific issues surrounding the use of animals in testing and research, with particular emphasis on the adequacy of current protections and the promise and challenges of developing alternatives to the use of animals in basic research, pharmaceutical research and development, and regulatory toxicology. Recent systematic reviews of treatments for various clinical conditions demonstrated that animal studies have been poorly predictive of human outcomes in the fields of neurology and vascular disease, among others [7], [48]. Under the universal standards of conduct, psychological researchers must do all of the following except __________. Animals demonstrate coordinated responses to pain and many emotional states that are similar to those exhibited by humans [25], [26]. Since a Western set of values guides the definition of "normal," psychological research can be considered __________. PLoS ONE 6(9): Now, a better understanding of animals' capacity for pain and suffering is prompting many to take a closer look at the human use of animals [56]. here. Animals share genetic, neuroanatomical, and physiological similarities with humans, and many animals express pain in ways similar to humans. The ethical obligation to protect and promote animal welfare in research. is necessary to get accurate results in some experiments. Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine is a nonprofit organization, and the authors adhered to PLoS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. If a psychologist violates his or her ethical obligations but breaks no laws, the American Psychological Association could take action and __________. Members of the British Psychological Society have a general obligation to minimise discomfort to living animals. Yes One of the most influential attempts to examine and affect the use of animals in research can be traced back to1959, with the publication of The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique [1]. In August 2010, the Georgetown University Kennedy Institute of Ethics, the Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, the Institute for In Vitro Sciences, The George Washington University, and the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine jointly held a two day multi-disciplinary, international conference in Washington, DC, to address the scientific, legal, and political opportunities and challenges to implementing alternatives to animal research. These findings are consistent with a great deal of prior research that has found women to have higher, more steadfast ethical standards and to act more ethically than men in a variety of behavioral realms. Ethical objections to the use of animals have been publically voiced for more than a century, well before there was a firm scientific understanding of animal emotion and cognition [15]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that, even in response to gentle handling, animals can show marked changes in physiological and hormonal markers of stress [30]. Ethics In Research 1. Ethical codes are adopted by organizations to assist members in understanding the difference between right and wrong and in applying that understanding to their decisions. Yes These guidelines are generally permissive of animal research independent of the costs to the individual animal as long as benefits seem achievable. The psychologist was not qualified to give psychiatric advice. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: HRF NB. The subjects were never informed that they were participating in a psychological study. Behavior suggestive of play has been observed in other taxa, including reptiles, fishes and cephalopods [43]. The authors thank the conference speakers and participants for their participation. Limitations And Benefits Of Psychological Research On Animals: Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. Journals should encourage authors to adhere to animal research reporting standards, for example the ARRIVE reporting guidelines, which describe the details journals should require from authors regarding: Other sources of harm for many animals include social deprivation and loss of the ability to fulfill natural behaviors, among other factors. These principles encouraged researchers to work to reduce the number of animals used in experiments to the minimum considered necessary, refine or limit the pain and distress to which animals are exposed, and replace the use of animals with non-animal alternatives when possible. No, Is the Subject Area "Breast cancer" applicable to this article? The test subjects are treated as objects rather than a living creature and are frequently abused, neglected and kept in improper cages. The International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS) has published ethical guidelines for researchers, editors, and reviewers. An ethical code generally implies documents at three levels: codes of business ethics , codes of conduct for employees, and codes of professional practice. These findings suggest that crows and related species display evidence of causal reasoning, flexible learning strategies, imagination and prospection, similar to findings in great apes. No, Is the Subject Area "Pain" applicable to this article? There are a number of unethical elements in the experimental design. These abuses served as the impetus for the establishment of the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974) and the resulting Belmont Report [16]–[18]. More recent studies have shown that crows are capable of creating and using tools that require access to episodic-like memory formation and retrieval [47]. Laws to protect animals in research have also been established. However, some in the scientific community are beginning to question how well data from animals translates into germane knowledge and treatment of human conditions. Animal Welfare Act and “other applicable Federal laws, guidelines, and policies” [24]. Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Washington, D.C., United States of America, Citation: Ferdowsian HR, Beck N (2011) Ethical and Scientific Considerations Regarding Animal Testing and Research. In addition to the capacity to experience physical and psychological pain or distress, animals also display many language-like abilities, complex problem-solving skills, tool related cognition and pleasure-seeking, with empathy and self-awareness also suggested by some research. Read the scenario below and answer the question that follows. A psychologist, whose primary focus is sleep behaviors, gives an acquaintance advice regarding psychiatric medication. Deception is not necessary for the successful completion of this study.The subjects were never debriefed in the study. Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research was developed by the American Psychological Association Committee on Animal Research and Ethics in 2010-11. Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Yes Further, while the “3 Rs” capture crucially important concepts, they do not adequately reflect the substantial developments in our new knowledge about the cognitive and emotional capabilities of animals, the individual interests of animals, or an updated understanding of potential harms associated with animal research. Many researchers have also begun to rely solely on human data and cell and tissue assays to address large areas of therapeutic research and development. This system includes a blood-donor base of hundreds of individuals from diverse populations and offers many benefits, including predictive high-throughput in vitro immunology to assess novel drug and vaccine candidates, measurement of immune responses in diverse human populations, faster cycle time for discovery, better selection of drug candidates for clinical evaluation, and reductions in the time and costs to bring drugs and vaccines to the market. Resource limitations might require a strategic approach that emphasizes diseases with the greatest public health threats, which increasingly fall within the scope of preventable diseases. This Overview provides a brief summary of the ethical and scientific considerations regarding the use of animals in research and testing, and accompanies a Collection entitled Animals, Research, and Alternatives: Measuring Progress 50 Years Later, which aims to spur ethical and scientific advancement. Is the Subject Area "Research ethics" applicable to this article? The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. No, Is the Subject Area "Publication ethics" applicable to this article? 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